Обучение лексике на уроках английского языка в средней школе

Some of the proposed definitions will be inexact, hinting at, but not fully defining, the term.

Record all definitions suggested on the chalkboard.

Have the pupils read the text selection, noting the specific sentences in which each of the words appears.

Ask pupils to revisit their previous definitions and see which, if any, reflect the use of these words in the context of the selection. Use dictionaries if pupil definitions lack enough clarity to match the contextal meaning of the words.

Reiterate that words have multiple meanings and uses and that the context of a word in a text selection determines its meaning.

Possible Sentences is a pre-reading strategy that focuses on vocabulary building and pupil prediction prior to reading. In this strategy, teachers write the key words and phrases of a selected text on the chalkboard. Pupils are asked to:

Define all of the terms.

Group the terms in related pairs.

Write sentences using these word pairs.

These «possible sentences» introduce the important skill of pre-reading prediction. Pupils then «check» their predictions by a close, careful reading of the text selection.

Steps to Possible Sentences:

Prior to the reading assignment, list all significant vocabulary words in a reading selection on the chalkboard.

Ask pupils to define the words and select pairs of related words from the list.

Require pupils to write sentences using each of the word pairs that they might expect to appear in the selection, given its title and general subject area.

Select several pupils to write their «possible sentences» on the chalkboard. Engage the pupils in a discussion of the appropriateness of the word pairing and the «plausibility» of each sentence as a «possible sentence» in the selection.

Have pupils read the selection and test the accuracy of their predictions. Sentences that are not accurate should be revised.

Poll the class for common accurate and inaccurate predictions. Discuss possible explanations for the success or failure of these predictions.

The Semantic Feature Analysis strategy asks pupils to identify key words in a reading selection and relate these words to the major concepts of the text. Using a graphical matrix, pupils:

List the key words of a reading selection.

Identify the meaning and properties of these key words.

Group key words into logical categories.

Relate the words (and categories) to one another.

This strategy makes special effort to draw on a pupil’s past knowledge and experiences to define and relate the key terms.

Steps to a Semantic Feature Analysis:

Select a topic or concept from a reading selection for pupil analysis. Introduce the Semantic Feature Analysis graphical organizer (see below) as a tool for recording reading observations.

Help pupils list key vocabulary words related to the topic down the left hand column of the chart. Next, assist pupils in listing the properties or features of the topic across the top row of the chart.

Once the matrix is complete, review all the words and properties with the pupils and have them carefully read the text selection.

While reading, pupils place check marks in the matrix when a vocabulary word reinforces one of the properties of the topic.

After reading and completing the matrix, have pupils share their observations. Encourage discussion about differing results. Ask pupils to identify which vocabulary words best communicate the essential properties of the topic.

Example:

When you think of vocabulary, there is a good chance that you think of long lists of words from social studies or science textbooks, spelling word lists, or even the humongous lists of terms to study for college entrance exams. Zillions of flash cards also may come to mind. No doubt you share the common childhood experience of having to «go look up the words in a dictionary, write the definition, and then write a sentence using the term» — but how much of that vocabulary do you remember now? Do you remember how you could rote copy the definition of a term as part of a homework assignment, but have no real idea what the definition meant and still get an 'A' on the assignment?

Perhaps the least effective way to study vocabulary is the «look and remember» technique. Here, students typically stare at the term and definition, apparently trying to activate photographic memory they wish they had. Another common study technique is 'rote verbal rehearsal' — saying the word over and over again, usually in the exact language and format from which the definition originally came.

Ross Perot, with his unique use of the English language, said it best — «That dog don’t hunt!» In other words, many of the traditional techniques teachers and students use to learn vocabulary does not work because most students, not just those with learning problems, rarely remember the meanings of new terms beyond the test. This raises a very disconcerting question: If students don’t remember the definitions of new terms after the test, why bother requiring them to memorize these definitions in the first place since it seems to be a waste of time?

We know from research that new terms must be defined using language and examples which are already familiar to students, and that the more ideas from background knowledge with which the student can associate the new term, the more likely it will become a well-networked and permanent part of memory. There are a variety of tactics and strategies that can be mediated by the teacher to help students understand and remember new terms as well as the significance of important names, events, places, or processes. All of these tactics involve facilitating elaboration in various ways.

Elaborating definitions of new terms

There are several elaboration techniques that appear to be particularly powerful facilitators of comprehension and memory of new terms. These are briefly described below.

Elaboration technique #1:

Teach new terms in context of a meaningful subject-matter lesson, and facilitate student discussion that centers on use of the new term. At some point, students should use the new term themselves in a sentence within the context of discussing broader topics.

The traditional practice of having students look up definitions and then write sentences using the new terms likely stems from the idea that students must think of the term and create a context for which it might be appropriately used. While composing written sentences clearly is an important elaboration technique for the learner, essential to also include in the learning process is learning about the term within an overall context so that relational understanding can develop.

Although providing opportunities for students to elaborate about new terms requires a significant portion of class time, it is clearly a worthwhile instructional practice. The problem is, students are often expected to memorize the definitions of far more terms than there is time in class to elaborate upon. To provide meaningful opportunities for elaboration, we need to teach considerably fewer terms, and invest considerable more time in developing deep knowledge structures of those that are really essential for students to know. This means that students are typically expected to memorize far too many terms each week. The adage 'less is more — depth' is more' is very true in this context.

Another implication of this first elaboration technique is that the common practice (often associated with language arts classes) of having students attempt to learn long lists of un-associated words without the benefit of learning them within some meaningful context is largely a waste of the teacher’s and student’s time. Figure 1 provides a set of guidelines for how to be more selective about deciding which terms students should be taught.

Figure 1

G uidelines for selecting to-be-learned vocabulary Do… Avoid… Less is more — depth is more. T each fewer vocabulary terms, but teach them in a manner that results in deep understandings of each term.

T eaching or assigning words from textbooks just because they are highlighted in some way (italicized, bold face print, etc.). Teach terms that are central to the unit or theme of study. T hese are terms that are so important that if the student does not understand them, s/he likely will have difficulty understanding the remainder of the unit. T eaching or assigning words just because they appear in a list at the end of a text chapter.

T each terms that address key concepts or ideas. W hile a text chapter may contain 15−20 vocabulary terms, there may be only 4 or 5 that address critical concepts in the chapter — sometimes only 1 or 2!). Teaching or assigning words that will have little utility once the student has passed the test. T each terms that will be used repeatedly throughout the semester. T

hese are foundational concepts upon which a great deal of information will be built on over a long-term basis. A ssigning words the teacher cannot define. A ssigning large quantities of words. A

ssigning words that students will rarely encounter again. Elaboration technique #2:

Facilitate paraphrasing of new term’s definitions so that students can identify the core idea associated with the overall meaning of the term, as well as distinguish the new term’s critical features. If you were to dissect the semantic structure of a new term, you would find that its definition actually has two main components: (i) The core idea of the new term is like its 'gist' or main idea; and (ii) critical features of the definition are specific bits of information in the definition that clarify the broader, more general core idea. This is analogous to paraphrasing main ideas of paragraphs when reading in which the reader says what the overall paragraph was about (main idea) and indicates important details in the paragraph. With new terms, the goal is to paraphrase the core idea of the term and identify specific critical-to-remember details that clarify the core idea.

Elaboration technique #3:

M ake background knowledge connections to the new term. W hile teaching the new term in context of a subject-matter lesson is a critical instructional technique, an equally important elaboration technique is for students to relate the term to something in which the students are already familiar.

T here is a wide array of methods by which students can formulate knowledge connections. F or example, they can identify how the term is related to previous subject-matter they have learned, they can identify something from their personal life experiences the term reminds them of, they can create metaphors or similes for the term, or they can say how the term relates to understanding or solving some form of real-life problem.

A n essential part of this elaboration process is having the students explain the connection. For example, the students should not only say what personal experience the term makes them think of, but also why it reminds them of it.

Elaboration technique #4:

Identify examples/applications as well as non-examples/non-applications related to the new term’s meaning. Comprehension is greatly enhanced if the learner can accurately identify examples of the term or ways the new term can be appropriately applied within the context of discussing another context. For example, the term 'peaceful resistance' might be used when describing Martin Luther King’s approach to solving racial discrimination problems.

You will likely find that students' comprehension of new terms becomes considerably more focused and refined if they can also identify examples of what the term is not about or inappropriate applications of the term’s use. Having the student discuss of what the term is not an example, or other concept with which someone should not confuse it, can facilitate this.

Elaboration technique #5:

Create multiple formats for which students can elaborate on the meaning of new terms. Many teachers will utilize all of the above elaboration processes within the context of a class discussion, and yet some students still do not seem to 'get it.' This is because the manner in which elaboration was facilitated was all 'lip-ear', or verbal or listening, forms of instruction. Writing elaborations, even for those where scripting is a laborious process, creates an opportunity for greater reflection on the term’s meaning. Other forms of elaboration involve use acting out via role-play the meanings of some terms or creating mnemonic pictures or stories that capture the essence of a new term’s meaning.

2.2 Vocabulary Games and Activities

The Dictionary Game is a team activity that both builds pupil vocabulary and strengthens dictionary skills. In this game, pupil teams first compete with each other to find a word definition in the dictionary. The fastest team reads the definition, explains the word’s part of speech, and uses the word correctly in a sentence. The other teams are allowed to challenge this response. Correct answers or challenges receive points.

The «hidden» value of this game is its ability to demonstrate the difference between a word’s primary definition and its specific usage in the context of a subject area or reading. Pupils quickly learn that the primary definition of a word is not always its meaning in a specific context.

Steps to the Dictionary Game:

Divide a class into teams of 4 or 5 members. Provide each pupil with a dictionary. Note: All pupils should receive the same edition of the same dictionary to ensure fair competition.

Review the rules of the game. Pupils must act individually. They cannot assist team members touch anyone else’s dictionary. When all members of the team have found the word, they stand.

To start the game, read a sentence from a recently completed reading assignment and point out a specific word in the sentence for pupils to define. Pupil teams «race» to find the word in the dictionary.

A team member from the group first finding the word reads all of its definitions and identifies its part of speech and number of syllables.

The group then confers about which definition is most appropriate in the context of the sentence. The team reports their conclusion to the class.

Other groups may challenge any or all parts of the first team’s definition and description of the word. Teams receive points for correct definitions or successful challenges.

Rivet is a variation of the childhood game, HangMan. This game introduces vocabulary terms and encourages better spelling.

The game is very simple. The teacher draws a blank line for each letter of a vocabulary word. The teacher then slowly fills in the blanks, one letter at a time, until a pupil guesses the word. This pupil is then asked to come to the chalkboard and complete spelling the word.

A variation of this game adds features of the «Wheel of Fortune» television show. Here, the class is divided into teams, each taking turns calling out a letter. The teacher fills in all of the blanks corresponding to this letter. Each team suggests letters until one team can identify the vocabulary word.

Steps to Rivet:

Choose 6 to 8 important words from the reading selection.

Draw lines for each letter in the first word. Have pupils follow along with their own personal white board. For example, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .

Fill in the letters to the word one at a time. Encourage pupils to guess the word at any point. For example, v o l _ _ _ _ _ _.

When someone guesses the correct word, have that pupil help spell it and write the remaining letters on the board. Such as, v o l u n t a r y.

Repeat the above steps for each of the vocabulary words.

A Word Sort is a simple small group activity. Pupils list key words from a reading selection. (Alternatively, the teacher may provide a list of terms prior to the reading activity.) Pupils identify the meaning and properties of each word and then «sort» the list into collections of words with similar features. This «sorting» process links pupils' prior knowledge to the basic vocabulary of a reading selection.

Vacca and Vacca (1996) describe two forms of Word Sorts:

Closed Word Sort-The teacher provides the categories (and the specific features of each) to the pupils. The pupils then match the words with the features to create the word collections.

Open Word Sort-The teacher provides only the list of words. Pupils work together to discern the common features and to describe the categories for collecting the word groups.

Steps to a Word Sort:

List between 10 and 20 key vocabulary words from a reading selection on the chalkboard or on index cards.

Divide the class into small groups of 4 or 5 pupils. (Distribute the index cards if this method is used.)

For a Closed Word Sort, provide pupils with the categories into which they will sort the vocabulary words. For an Open Word Sort, instruct the pupil teams to suggest categories for organizing the words.

Allow 10 to 15 minutes for the pupil teams to assign the words to the appropriate categories.

Conduct a class discussion with each group presenting their word list for one of the categories. Require the pupils to defend their sorting of terms by asking about the common features of the categories and how each specific word meets these criteria.

Games are a different way to teach vocabulary, and the pupils obviously seem to like this method. You can give pupils cards with situations described on them, and have the pupils act them out, and let the other pupils guess what they’re portraying. You can make easy crossword puzzles that will help your pupils enjoy using their vocabulary words to solve the puzzles.

Pupils can draw pictures and split into two groups, one acting a picture out and the other group guessing what the word is, and then spelling it and using it in a sentence. Knowing how to teach vocabulary is more in-depth than just throwing out words and rattling off definitions and spellings. If it’s more like a game, your pupils may be more eager to learn, and more easy to teach.

CONCLUSION

Having examined the theoretical and investigated practical material on the theme of our research we achieved the following results:

investigated the value of English as a subject and its place in academic curriculum;

examined communicative approach as a goal in teaching English;

illustrated some difficulties of studying English vocabulary and the ways to overcome them how to organize the work with pictures in the classroom;

examined different levels of English;

illustrated some strategies for teaching vocabulary;

evaluate the influence of picture usage in enlarging the vocabulary of young language learners;

proposed some vocabulary games and activities.

The main purpose of a foreign language is to form communicative competence that is ability and availability to perform intercultural and interpersonal communication with native speakers.

Foreign language broadens linguistic view of people, stimulates the forming of communicational culture and facilitates the whole speech development of pupils. It reveals the interaction of all linguistic subjects that assist in forming the base of philological education of schoolchildren.

Studying English in secondary school is directed to the reaching of the development of speech competence.

While learning English vocabulary pupils can face some difficulties. They are phrasal verbs, special rules of word derivation and so on.

While learning English as a foreign language traditionally three districts of learner populations usually are recognized: secondary school pupils, university pupils, and adult language learners.

We use a five-level system of aptitude which gives a very comprehensive description of speech and language skills and content for each level. But level intermediate has its own subdivision into three parts. The levels of language comprehension are:

Post-beginner

Elementary Lower (or pre-)intermediate

Mid-intermediate

Upper intermediate

Advanced

Proficient native speaker standard

There are many strategies that allow pupils to master words. We considered some of them such as Stephens Vocabulary Elaboration Strategy, Pupil VOC Strategy and so on. Also we proposed some vocabulary games and activities.

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Bolinger, Dwight. The Phrasal Verb in English. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971. — P. xii.

Crystal David. The Penguin Dictionary of Language. — Penguin Books — England — 1999.

National Reading Panel. 2000. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. pp. 4−15.

Stahl, S.A. 2005. Four problems with teaching word meanings (and what to do to make vocabulary an integral part of instruction). In E.H. Hiebert and M.L. Kamil (eds.), Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

National Reading Panel. 2000. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. pp. 4−15.

Beck, I.L., M.G. McKeown, and L. Kucan. 2002. Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford.

National Reading Panel. 2000. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. pp. 4−15.

Scott, J.A., and W.E. Nagy. 2004. Developing word consciousness. In J.F. Baumann and E.J. Kame’enui (eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice. New York: Guilford.

Graves, M.F. 2000. A vocabulary program to complement and bolster a middle-grade comprehension program. In B.M. Taylor, M.F. Graves, and P. Van Den Broek (eds.), Reading for meaning: Fostering comprehension in the middle grades. Mew York: Teachers College Press.

National Reading Panel. 2000. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. pp. 4−15.

Stahl, S.A. 2005. Four problems with teaching word meanings (and what to do to make vocabulary an integral part of instruction). In E.H. Hiebert and M.L. Kamil (eds.), Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Susan Jindrich «Help your children learn to write»

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Kimberly L. Keith «Help Your Child Learn Writing Skills»

http://childparenting.about.com/od/learningenrichment/a/writingskills.htm

Graves, M.F. 2000. A vocabulary program to complement and bolster a middle-grade comprehension program. In B.M. Taylor, M.F. Graves, and P. Van Den Broek (eds.), Reading for meaning: Fostering comprehension in the middle grades. Mew York: Teachers College Press.

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Description of levels. British Council:

http://www.britishcouncil.org/ru/colombia-english-learn-english-in-colombia-courses-for-adults-description-of-levels.htm

Description of levels. British Council:

http://www.britishcouncil.org/ru/colombia-english-learn-english-in-colombia-courses-for-adults-description-of-levels.htm

Brown, Jean E., Phillips, Lela B., and Stephens, Elaine C. (1993). Towards literacy: theory and applications for teaching writing in the content areas. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Vacca, R.D., Vacca J. (1995). Content area reading. (5th. Ed.). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.

Lenski, Susan D., Wham, Mary Ann, & Johns, Jerry L. (1999). Reading and learning strategies for middle and high school pupils. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

Lenski, Susan D., Wham, Mary Ann, & Johns, Jerry L. (1999). Reading and learning strategies for middle and high school pupils. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

Johnson, D. D. & Pearson, P. D. (1984). Teaching reading vocabulary. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Lenski, Susan D., Wham, Mary Ann, & Johns, Jerry L. (1999). Reading and learning strategies for middle and high school pupils. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

Lenski, Susan D., Wham, Mary Ann, & Johns, Jerry L. (1999). Reading and learning strategies for middle and high school pupils. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

Vacca, R.D., Vacca J. (1995). Content area reading. (5th. Ed.). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.