Социо-лингвистический аспект современного американского общества

Typically, pro-rehabilitation interests characterize criminals as sick and punishment advocates as offering only symptomatic treatment. To effect a cure, the criminal justice system must find the source of the deviant infection and surgically repair it by providing psychological counseling, job skills, or whatever is necessary. Otherwise, self-respecting recidivists with unchanged motivation will still believe they can evade the law no matter how stiff the penalties. Worse yet, stiffer sentencing means that convicts spend a longer time in a «total institution» in which they must submit to authoritarian control of their lives while being deprived of contact with mainstream society. How can their coping with society’s pressures be expected to improve after the prison door slams shut behind them?

Counterarguments have been highly refined in this long running debate. While the pro-punishment side may generally contend that the pains visited upon the criminal are far less «cruel and unusual» than the punishment inflicted on the victim, they also make a case for the personal rights of the perpetrator. The very term rehabilitate comes from a Latin root meaning «to make suitable.» Of necessity, rehabilitation programs intrude on the personal space of criminals by creating conditions designed to remake their personalities in society’s image. Whether the treatment involves in-depth therapy probing one’s relationship with mother or provision of the job skills the vocational counselor thinks one needs, the rehabilitant must surrender some individual privacy and autonomy.

The pro-rehabilitation position has also noted some surprising value trade-offs. To the common charge that criminals do not deserve lavish treatment services at state expense, they respond that cold, spare prisons are an extravagance. At current prices, building a cell costs 50,000 dollars; keeping a prisoner in a cell runs between 1000 dollars and 2000 dollars a month, well above what it would cost to buy the criminal a house on a mortgage. An increasingly punitive corrections policy will carry a whopping price tag and increasing fiscal pressure to divert funds from other essential public services.

The social costs of a get-tough sentencing policy have been making headlines in the 1980s. With the recent trend toward mandatory sentencing (in the last several years, some thirty-seven states have legislated fixed prison terms for certain offenses), cells in the United States are bursting at their metal-reinforced seams. New records for numbers of inmates have already been broken every year in this decade, with nearly 500,000 people (about 1 of every 500 Americans) now behind bars. To comply with the stiffer sentencing procedures, 4 billion to 6 billion dollars in prison and jail construction funds arc to be set aside over the next ten years.

Meanwhile, prisons across the nation are ominously overcrowded. Because of this inhumane—and potentially explosive—situation, individual prisons or entire prison systems in thirty-nine states are under court order to upgrade living conditions. Attica’s prison population has been permitted to exceed the legal residence limit set after the infamous 1971 riot in which forty-three people were killed. Matters are so desperate that more than 17,000 inmates were actually released in 1984 due to overcrowding.

It is curious that while serious crime is showing a decline, the inmate population continues to explode, as violent outlaws and non-violent «supposed» criminals, such as drug offenders are in endless supply for the reason that drug prohibition just does not work. However, the federal and local state policy setters in the US have things so skewed that the non-violent drug offender, whose numbers have increased 35% from 1990 to 1995, does more time behind bars per capita than all other offenders.

California, having the largest number of prisoners and having constructed in the last 20 years 21 new gaols, costing up to $ 225 million each and just one new university, notwithstanding the world’s best public university system of the area.

Drug prohibition as a way to struggle with drug addiction and crime seems to be a failure, the authorities cannot lock away all drug law dissenters, put them away for too much time. By releasing sexual predators and violent criminals like Singleton and destroying drug law violators and their families by the millions the Federal and state powers fail to develop a new workable policy, capable of reducing the striking figures of crimes in the USA significantly.

1970 America’s crime rate is roughly the same in the first decade of the millenium, the homicide rate being at its lowest level since 1965. In 1970, overall, the national rate of crime was 3982 crimes per 100,000 residents, down from 4852 crimes per 100,000 residents thirty years earlier in 1974 (17.

6%). Besides, there tend to be great local differences within the U. S, New England having a violent crime and homicide rate comparable to that of most other developed nations, while southern states were among the most violent.

L ocation impacts on crime in the United States very significantly. W hile some responding jurisdictions are nearly free of serious crime, others are plagued by some of the highest serious crime rates in the industrialized world. T

he homicide rate shows the stark differences between communities. I n 2004, the Baltimore police departments found out more homicides per 100,000 residents than any other jurisdiction. T he rate of homicide per 100,000 was 43.5, nearly eight times the national average. I n 2005, Forbes magazine identified Long Island as one of the suburban areas of New York City, which is also one of the wealthiest and most expensive communities in the United States, as having 2,042 crimes per 100,000 residents; the lowest crime rate and less than half the US average Fairfax County, Virginia, a very affluent suburban enclave of the nation’s capital with 1,041,200 residents, had the lowest homicide rate of any jurisdiction. In 2004, Fairfax County’s police reported homicide rate in the region at 0.3 homicides per 100,000 persons, 94.

5% below the national average and 1/145 of Baltimore’s homicide rate. It is therefore vital to note that the risk of being victimized by crime in the United States varies greatly from locale to locale.

The highest total crime level of any state, except for the District of Columbia, was found in Arizona and South Carolina., the crime rate in Arizona being 46.

82% above the national average and three and half (3.5) times as high as that of New Hampshire, America’s safest state. The District of Columbia and Louisiana demonstrated the highest homicide rate, the both states being home to some of the most violent areas in the entire country, namely eastern Washington, D.C. and the city of New Orleans, overall there being six states with fewer than two homicides per 100,000 residents. However there were also eight states with more than seven homicides per 100,000 residents, which illustrates the drastic degree to which crimes rates vary from state to state.

To sum up, we can claim that the USA, famous for its great criminality level, does not seem to be developing a reliable strategy to overcome its criminal tendencies.

Drug, alcohol and tobacco addiction

The term drug refers to any habit-forming chemical substance that affects perception, mood, or consciousness. There are four classes of legal psychoactive drugs: prescription drugs, over-the-counter (OTC) drugs, social drugs (such as alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine), and drugs sold for nondrug purposes that can affect mood and awareness, such as airplane glue and nutmeg. There are also illegal psychoactive drugs such as heroin, cocaine, and marijuana, and legal psychoactive drugs used illegally, such as stimulants and depressants sold on the street.

While it is true that drugs have become an increasingly common part of everyday lives in the US, it is also true that drug abuse has become a major public policy issue. Increasing concern over the dangers of drugs has led to growing support for mandatory urine testing among personnel managers since the military began using it in 1982. And, in 1986, President Reagan declared a «war on drugs,» calling for mandatory drug testing of hundreds of thousands of federal workers, the death penalty in some drug-related murder cases, and a 3.1 billion dollar drug abuse program. In 1987, Reagan partially reversed himself by calling for a 915 million dollar cutback in funding for 1988.

R easons for drug use vary enormously from person to person. S o do the effects of drugs, partly because drug experiences are social psychological and partly because people take drugs in different ways. S ome inject directly into a vein, feeling a rapid maximum response.

O thers smoke, experiencing less of a jolt since some of the drug escapes into the air. O ral ingestion generally diminishes but prolongs the effect of drugs, although the result depends on the individual’s physical system. It is important to remember that drugs are not simply chemicals; they are a complex phenomenon with social, psychological, and physical effects.

While the end result is staggering economic, social, and health costs, costs which objectively qualify drug use as a major social problem, some see drugs as a problem because they are part of a lifestyle that flaunts conventional middle-class values and threatens the American way of life.

T he National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse (1973) outlined five forms of drug use. T hese include experimental use, which is of a short-term trial nature. I

n this instance, a person may use a drug only once or twice to experience its effects. S ocial recreational use is occasional indulgence among friends to share an experience or enhance interaction. C ircumstantial and situational use of drugs is restricted to specific pressing circumstances, such as taking a drug to stay alert for an exam. I

ntensified use is long-term, habitual, and regular use of a drug. Compulsive use is frequent use of a drug to the point where a person cannot face life without it and becomes physiologically and/or psychologically dependent.

T he most common view of a drug problem involves the social definition of some drugs as unacceptable regardless of effects. T his highly subjective view typically reflects the values of mainstream culture and does not always reflect the objective harm of different drugs.

H eroin, for instance, is used largely by minority groups and has traditionally been repressed by society. Y et it causes fewer health problems than alcohol and cigarettes, which are socially acceptable. M arijuana is another case in point. At one time it was highly unacceptable, but when its use shifted in the 1960s to middle-class college youth, attitudes toward it were liberalized.

There are important distinctions between drug use, drug abuse, and drug addiction. The simple use of drugs is not necessarily problematic, but drug abuse is. Abuse is the improper use of drugs to the point where the individual and/or social group suffers, as when drugs are taken for non-medical purposes (to feel good, to get high, and so on), are used excessively, or are damaging to health.

Addiction, a severe form of abuse, is considered by some to be behavior which leads to dependence, a recurrent psychological and/or physical craving for a drug. Others use the term addiction loosely to include any regular use of a drug with or without dependence on it. Here the term addiction is restricted to conditions where dependence occurs from withdrawal of the drug. The evidence is clear that addiction in this sense can occur with a number of drugs, most notably alcohol, cigarettes, the barbiturates, and the opiates.

A number of linkages connect drugs to many other contemporary social problems. T he link to crime is evidenced by the large number of federal and state prison inmates who are drug offenders. E ach year there are close to a million arrests for drug law violations.

T he most common drug-related crimes (aside from possession or distribution) are burglaries and muggings to support drug habits. H eroin especially is related to stealing, since a heroin addict may need over $ 100 a day to get high. O

f all the drugs, alcohol is most highly correlated with violence. I n 1985 the Bureau of Justice Statistics reported that more than half of jail inmates convicted of violent crimes had been drinking before committing the offenses. Wife abuse, child abuse, fighting in bars, rape, and a long list of other forms of violence are frequently associated with alcohol abuse.

Drug abuse affects people who have a variety of other social problems such as poverty, unemployment, alienation, or discrimination. Heroin addicts are likely to experience all of these difficulties. Drug abuse is also profoundly involved with family life because it is inextricably bound up with the causes and consequences of marital problems and instability. The skyrocketing divorce rate in the country may be due in part to the rise in drug use. Since 1958 the divorce rate has been steadily increasing, as has drug use, although it is difficult to tell whether drug use is a cause or a result of failing marriages.

Drugs are also involved in accidents which injure and kill not only the drug user but innocent victims as well. Alcohol use, for instance, is blamed for half of the yearly total of automobile fatalities, not to mention the one billion dollars wasted annually on property damage and medical expenses caused by alcohol-related car accidents. The effect of other drugs on highway accidents is not fully known, but it is safe to assume that large doses of psychoactive drugs impair driving ability.

A number of mental and physical health problems are also associated with drugs. T he fact that large numbers of people turn to drugs in order to feel comfortable may indicate a deep dissatisfaction with the quality of their lives. O r perhaps they are psychologically disturbed people who use drugs to escape their troubled psyches. P

hysical health problems of drug abusers are more tangible than psychological complications. I n general, drug abusers are more likely to suffer from a number of physical consequences including malnutrition, retarded sexual maturation, anemia, infections, hepatitis, poor dental health, and high death rates. S ome health problems occur even before birth, such as congenital disorders (fetal alcohol syndrome) caused by mothers drinking alcohol during pregnancy. T he most telling fact regarding the effect of drug abuse on physical health lies in a 1984 report from the National Institute of Drug Abuse.

T hat study found that the addictive use of many psychoactive substances—such as alcohol, tobacco, heroin, cocaine, amphetamines, barbiturates, and hallucinogens—has made drug abuse the leading cause of death in the United States. T his striking fact has been neglected because of the failure of «physician sentinels» to certify things like smoking as the underlying cause of death. In 1984, the World Health Organization said cigarette smoking alone was responsible for a million premature deaths worldwide each year.

I f drug use is acceptable among a particular group of people, then, from their point of view, it is normal. D rug use may be part of a social learning process by which people become deviant through conforming to a set of standards rejected by the larger society. H eroin use may occur mainly in the ghetto because it is part of everyday life there.

O n a more microsocial level, children can turn into drinkers by modeling drinking parents. A dditionally, marijuana use is now filtering down to children under 8 years old who are smoking under the influence and supervision of their parents. Thus, drug use may be a form of social behavior acquired through direct conditioning and through imitation, or modeling, of others' behavior.

There are also many people with drug problems who are not members of oppressed minority groups but are simply following the lead of a reference group—a social network an individual uses to guide his or her own behavior. The fact that most users are hooked on drugs prescribed by a physician demonstrates they are simply conforming to the suggestions of the medical world. At cocktail parties, guests are expected to drink alcohol as part of the social ritual. College students who use drugs are typically the ones whose friends (reference individuals) do.

To those who would overhaul present policies pertaining to pot in the United States, the very phrase «marijuana problem» is misleading because the drug itself is not problematic. In sociological perspective of American society, serious subjective concern about a drug in the public mind does qualify it as a social problem. The pro-marijuana forces are attempting to change minds by presenting objective evidence. There has been an enormous amount of scientific investigation searching for the health effects of pot smoking.

P roponents of marijuana legalization are not only against prohibition but also in favor of a concrete policy which must also be evaluated in terms of implementation issues. T heir general goal is the creation of a regulated, revenue-producing (and tax-producing) industry similar to that for alcohol. B ecause of the widespread concern about the effects of marijuana on the long-term health and development of adolescents, reformers generally propose plans attempting to limit access for young users. A s you might know from your experience as an alcohol «minor,» these legal limits are pretty easy to beat.

C onsequently, legalization could very well increase the number of young users. Such practical problems of this alternative strategy are part of the reason the majority of the American public now opposes legalization.

B esides prohibition and legalization, there is a third major option for drug policy. I t is known as decriminalization, in this case the abolition of criminal penalties for marijuana possession (without government controlled production and distribution). W e have no need to present the armchair arguments of its supporters because hard evidence is available from the real world. E

leven states (with one-third of the United States' population) have adopted some form of marijuana decriminalization. P reliminary indications from this massive policy experiment are that law enforcement costs have dropped markedly and, surprisingly, that marijuana use has increased more slowly in the decriminalized states than in states where pot is still outlawed. Neither prohibition nor legalization advocates are satisfied with such results.

C harting the future for marijuana policy is hazardous because of the swirling of interest groups around the issue. B esides single-issue organizations such as NORML, those supporting reforms of American current marijuana laws include the American Medical Association, the American Bar Association, and the National Council of Churches. P owerful forces are also pressing for continued prohibition, among them the weight of present public opinion and, by some accounts, lobbyists for organized crime.

T he degree of public controversy about marijuana—and other legal and illegal drugs—suggests two sociological predictions. F irst, policy change is likely in the decade ahead.

S econd, the shape of that change will not follow a rational policy blueprint. As the conflict theorists remind us, policy is not created on an academic drawing board, but rather in the clashing interests of groups in the real social world.

A lcohol, a natural substance formed by the reaction of fermenting sugar with yeast spores, has many forms. T he kind in alcoholic beverages is ethyl alcohol—a colorless, inflammable liquid with an intoxicating effect. B

ecause of its ability to alleviate pain and relieve tension, alcohol has been highly valued in many societies. I t is a drug which can produce feelings of well-being, sedation, intoxication, or unconsciousness, depending on the amount and manner in which it is consumed. A lcoholism, an addiction to the drug, has been defined by some as a disease and by others as a mental disorder. C

learly, alcoholism involves drinking which exceeds societal norms and which affects the drinker economically, socially, and/or physically. I n 1973, the National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse identified alcoholism as the most serious drug problem in the United States. A pproximately 80 million Americans drink, each consuming on the average 3 gallons of pure alcohol a year. A lthough the estimates on the number of alcoholics vary widely, the government believes there are at least 10 million—almost 5 percent of the total population! Unfortunately, the problem seems to be spreading, particularly among adolescents, over half of whom drink at least once a month.

Americans who do drink are drinking more and more per capita. In fact, from I960 to 1979, there was a 42 percent increase in beer consumption, a 44 percent increase in whiskey consumption, and a doubling in wine consumption. Economic factors, such as taxes and recessions, can sober alcohol sales, but a certain segment of the population will continue to drink regardless of the price. The heaviest-drinking 5 percent of the population consumes roughly 50 percent of the total alcohol consumed. There is a positive side to all this: one third of the adult population is abstinent, and another third drinks very little over the course of a year.

A. Leon-Guerrero estimated in 2004 that American society loses about 50 billion dollars each year because of alcohol abuse. This includes the costs of lost production (absenteeism, wasted time, accidents, extra sick leave, and the like), health and medical expenses, automobile accidents, violent crime, and fire losses.

The health costs of alcohol abuse are staggering.6 Although many consider alcohol a stimulant, it is actually a protoplasmic poison with a depressant effect. About 65,000 deaths are attributed to alcohol each year. In terms of the number of people injured and diseased, alcoholism is responsible for much more damage than heroin, which causes only hundreds of deaths each year. Alcoholics can expect to live ten to twelve years less than nonalcoholics, partly because of a poor diet resulting in vitamin deficiencies, which in turn lead to a lowered resistance to infectious diseases.

F ew suffer more than the family of the alcoholic. T he suffering takes many forms. M arital breakup, sexual dissatisfaction, and damage to children’s personalities have already been mentioned. I

t is not unusual for an entire family to be stigmatized because of an alcoholic member. P hysical abuse is also common in the households of alcoholics. Some experts attribute 65 percent of child abuse to a drinking parent, and 80 percent of wife battering to a drinking spouse.

Moreover, batterers who abuse alcohol are more violent than batterers who do not drink. It is difficult to enumerate all of the different types of problems that alcoholism can cause.

To sum up, we can claim that there are a wide variety of drugs available to Americans. Because many Americans use drugs for pleasure rather than for health problems, drug abuse constitutes one of our major social problems. Subjective concern about drugs approximates the objective damage of the problem, but people often fear the less harmful drugs and overlook the widespread damage of socially acceptable drugs, such as alcohol and cigarettes.

Alcoholism, one of the worst drug problems of all, appears to be on the rise. Although the public does not perceive alcohol as a dangerous drug, the economic, health, and social costs of alcohol abuse are staggering.

There are a number of theories of drug abuse, which include the idea that people turn to drugs because of role strain, the competition in industrial society, anomie, social learning, or social conflict.

Hostility toward measures to prevent drug abuse and welfare and progressive welfare reform is pervasive, both among members of the general public and—if their voting behavior is any indication—among most political elites. Underlying this hostility, in varying degrees, is racism.

The alternative policies examined for dealing with the problem of drug addiction are prohibition—the present system outlawing sale and possession—and legalization—the government overseeing production and distribution. Major issues bearing on both policies are health hazards, the effect of statutes on patterns of use, and linkages to the crime problem.

CONCLUSION

Having investigated the life and career of one of the most prominent figure in American culture we achieved the following results:

Characterized the difference in social being and housing, taking into account unemployment and language barriers as the key factors encouraging problems growth in multinational country;

One of the key reasons for this drastic unemployment figures, according to T. Miller, is the mandated wage hikes that policy makers have adopted in an already difficult business environment. Because of race discrimination the unemployment rates for whites (5.4 percent), Hispanics (7.8 percent) and blacks (11.4 percent) are quite though not too considerably different, and they are still rising due to the current economic recession.

Considered official language priorities and disregard of the national minorities languages,

A lot of immigrant employees have little or no problems adapting to the American workplace, as they speak English well enough and catch the business and social culture and climate. Since ethnic diversity is a distinctive feature of the American workplace, it is essential for the business community to understand better and be more sensitive to rather poor English speaking skills and cultural peculiarities of the personnel from whatever backgrounds.

Although education and increased demand for skilled workforce is frequently cited as a cause of increased inequality, many economists and political scientists point to public policy as the main cause of the citizens' property status difference. They indicate that education, as it is, can not result in widening gap between the richest 1% and others, whether the are well-educated professionals or mere high school leavers, and that their country has experienced so tremendous rise in inequality as no any other developed nation. Proficiency, efficiency, work experience influencing greatly on personal property status, inheritance, gender and race are of vital importance as well. Additionally household income largely depends on the number of people employed, contributing to property status difference of households depending on the number of profit earners.

Analyzed a variety of human rights discrimination (race, gander);

One concept of race is biological and refers to people who have interbred over a long period of time and, as a result, share distinctive physical features. These include skin color, hair texture, nose structure, head form, brain size, lip form, facial shape, and stature.

There are three forms of racial discrimination. One form is individual racism, a term often used interchangeably with race prejudice. It refers to negative racial attitudes which are ungrounded.

A second form of racism is institutional racism, which involves sources of discrimination found outside the individual. It includes all the direct and hidden ways in which society’s institutions work against the interests of minority groups. Institutional racism has a long history in the United States.

The third form of racism, cultural racism, contains elements of both individual and institutional racism. It is the expression of the superiority of the cultural heritage of one’s race over another. Cultural racism is at work, for instance, when the achievements of a race are ignored in classroom textbooks.

Sex roles have been differentiated by societies for as long as societies have existed. They pervade every aspect of American life, and they determine far more than who will go to work and who will raise the children. In the United States, the phenomenon of sex roles has been associated with social problems as diverse as poverty, mental illness, drug abuse, discrimination, sexual variance, crime, physical illness, the breakdown of the family, and even the waging of war.

Sexual discrimination also exists within the criminal justice system. Typically, men are more likely to be convicted and given longer sentences than women.

Progress in gender discrimination, though quite evident, results in formation of its more latent and hidden embodiment, generating secret forms of gender discrimination, adoption of bills directed to negative implication of it.

Focused on criminality and addiction as reflection of the peoples' dissatisfaction with the current social system of the US as it is;

Crime has been a long-standing concern in the US, with relatively high rates at the beginning of the 20th century when compared to the countries of Western Europe.

The highest total crime level of any state, except for the District of Columbia, was found in Arizona and South Carolina., the crime rate in Arizona being 46.

82% above the national average and three and half (3.5) times as high as that of New Hampshire, America’s safest state.

But the USA, famous for its great criminality level, does not seem to be developing a reliable strategy to overcome its criminal tendencies.

Evaluated the US social policy efficiency in whole and failures to resolve particular problems.

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