Ancient Britain

Weapons and horse trappings have been found in the bog at Llyn Cerrig Bach on Anglesey and are interpreted as votive offerings cast into a lake. Thus, watery places — springs, lakes, rivers, bogs — seem to have provided a route to the gods. There are many instances of metal objects recovered in circumstances that strongly suggest they were deliberately committed to the water as votive offerings — presumably, the origin of the wishing-well. Numerous weapons have also been recovered from rivers especially the Thames but also the Trent and Tyne (4). Some buried hoards of jewellery are interpreted as gifts to the earth gods.

The priesthood of this religion was the Druids. Caesar’s texts tell us that they were a religious elite with considerable holy and secular powers. Great Britain appears to have been the seat of the Druidic religion (1). No archaeological evidence survives of Druidry although a number of burials made with ritual trappings and found in Kent may suggest a religious character to the subjects.

O verall the traditional view is that religion was practised in natural settings in the open air. S everal sites interpreted as Iron Age shrines however seem to contradict this view.

S pecialised shrines were constructed mostly in southern Britain — an idea probably imported from Roman Gaul. A t Hayling Island, Hampshire, a circular wooden structure (in all probability a building), set within a rectangular courtyard and enclosed by palisading, was built in the mid-1st century BC. A large quantity of material — coins, currency bar fragments, brooches, shield binding, iron spearheads, horse trappings and some fragmentary human remains — had been deposited at the site. I ts status as a shrine being confirmed by the construction of a, stone, Roman temple, on top of and to virtually the same plan as the earlier wooden structure, in the later-1st century AD.

A t other sites, structures have been identified as shrines because of their obvious differences from normal domestic buildings. For instance, single rectangular buildings within a village of roundhouses, as found at both Heathrow (Middlesex) and Stansted (Essex) airports, are interpreted as shrines (4).

D eath in Iron Age Great Britain seems to have produced different behaviors in different regions. A s the Bronze Age metamorphosed into the Iron Age, the predominant method of disposing of the dead was cremation — the ashes being buried (in urns or not) in cemeteries. B y the fifth century BC, however, this tradition had ended (4).

T hen, over much of Britain, remarkably few burials are in evidence. I t seems likely that, generally, bodies were simply exposed to the elements and scavengers (excarnation) or cremated remains could be scattered; or bodies could be committed to the water, perhaps accompanied by high-status metalwork.

H owever, during the 1st century BC due to cross-Channel influences in south-eastern England cremation burials became common again (2). T ypically, small numbers of cremations are grouped together in cemeteries, though at the largest so far found — the cemetery at King Harry Lane, St. Albans, Hertfordshire — there were at least 463 (2). T here is considerable variation in the style and richness of burials.

S ome were accompanied by Italian wine amphorae and other expensive, often imported, feasting paraphernalia. Moreover, not only urns were used, for instance, the star find at a cemetery in Aylesford, Kent, was a grave in which the cremation was contained in a, bronze-embellished, wooden bucket: the Aylesford Bucket (2).

T he Arras culture is named after Arras, near Market Weighton, where an Iron Age barrow cemetery which was excavated in early 18th century. T he most dramatic features of this culture was ‘chariot burials' - barrows beneath which the corpse shared its grave with a dismantled, two-wheeled, vehicle (1). B ecause of the military implication, some archaeologists are reluctant to call them chariots.

T heir original purpose is by no means certain, though it seems reasonable to assume their last role was to convey the dead person — who was certainly of the highest rank — to his, or her, grave and then beyond. I n one of the original Arras discoveries, the deceased had been buried, not only with the chariot, but also with its two horses — his was dubbed ‘the King’s Barrow' (4).

E ach chariot burial is unique, there is no standard layout. In the majority, however, the chariot has been dismantled prior to burial.

Trade links developed in the Bronze Age and beforehand provided Great Britain with numerous examples of continental craftsmanship. Swords especially were imported, copied and often improved upon by the natives. Early in the period Hallstat slashing swords and daggers were a significant import although by the mid sixth century the volume of goods arriving seems to have declined, possibly due to more profitable trade centres appearing in the Mediterranean. There also appears to have been a collapse in the bronze trade during the early Iron Age.

With regard to animal husbandry, cattle represent a significant investment in pre-Roman Britain as they could be used as a source of portable wealth as well as providing useful domestic by-products such as milk, cheese and leather. In the Later Iron Age an apparent shift is visible, revealing a change in dominance from cattle rearing to that of sheep. Economically, sheep are significantly less labour intensive, requiring less people per animal.

A key commodity included in the Iron Age is salt, used for preservation and the supplementation of diet. Salterns, in which sea water is boiled to produce salt, are prevalent in the East Anglia fenlands.

R epresenting an important political and economic medium, the vast number of Iron Age coins found in Great Britain are of great archaeological use. F rom about 300BC, iron bars, called ‘currency bars' after a remark by Julius Caesar, were being produced, apparently, specifically for trading. T hese bars were forged into distinctive shapes which, it is thought, signified the source, and therefore the quality, of the iron.

T he ‘sword-shaped' currency bar was about 80 cm. long, and is one of a hoard of 21 similar examples, found at Danebury Hillfort, Hampshire (2). O bjects more recognisable as currency, such as gold staters, were imported from mainland Europe, others such as the cast bronze coins of south east England are clearly influenced by Roman originals.

C oins were being manufactured in Britain by c.100BC. T he British tribal kings adopted the continental habit of putting their names on the coins they had minted. The expansion of the economy throughout the period, but especially in the Later Iron Age, is in large part a reflection of key changes in social and status expression (4).

Historically speaking, the Iron Age in southern Great Britain ended with the Roman invasion (7). However, in areas where Roman rule was not strong or was non-existent, Iron Age beliefs and practices remained, but not without at least marginal levels of Roman, or Romano-British influence. The survival of place names, such as Camulodunum (Colchester) (1), from the native language is evidence of this.

CONCLUSION.

As it has been already mentioned, knowledge of Ancient Britain is derived entirely from archaeological research and is lacking in detail. However, available sources are sufficient to restore a picture of migration processes of the period and also skills, religion, economic and cultural development of native inhabitants of British Isles.

W e described history of Ancient Britain divided into five subperiods: Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic periods and Bronze and Iron Ages. T he Palaeolithic period was the longest period in Ancient Britain history and is usually known for a great number of significant environmental changes resulted in mass migration of people from isles to continent and back. T he cutting of the land bridge was the major event in the Mesolithic period. I t resulted in ceasing of migration and thus to the period of insular characteristics development of British nation.

T hen, so-called Neolithic Revolution led to a more settled way of life. D uring the Neolithic period for the first time societies became divided into differing groups of farmers, artisans and leaders. The Bronze Age give the extensive development of culture and religion: famous Beaker and Wessex cultures raised during the period, alongside with the development of the first burial traditions.

However, the most extensive development of the nation was during the Iron Age. Great Britain began to be closely tied to continental Europe which results in a large migration of people from continent. Appearance of trade links gave rise to the development of local craftsmanship, economy growth and first Britain currency. Religious practices of the period were dedicated to offerings and sacrifices, building of first shrines and development of new ways of burial of dead.

Thus, to the Roman invasion British society already had its own traditions, culture, economy and religious beliefs.

REFERENCES.

Cook J. Close to the Earth: Living Social History of the British Isles. — London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984.

Darvill T. Prehistoric Britain. — London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1997.

Davies N. Europe: A History. — Harper Collins, 1998.

Dyer J. Ancient Britain. — London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1990.

Kearney H. The British Isles: A History of Four Nations. — Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Артемова А. Ф. Великобритания. Книга для чтения по страноведению. — М, 2006.

Васильев К. История Великобритании. — М, 2004.

Гюйонварх К.-Ж., Леру Ф. Кельтская цивилизация. Пер. Г.Бондаренко. — СПб.-М.: Культурная инициатива; Московский философский фонд, 2001.

Web-sources.

The Ancient Human Occupation of Britain (AHOB) project — www.ahobproject.org.

Britannica Online Encyclopedia — www.britannica.com.